Rebuttal of Answering-Ansar’s Article “Who Killed Imam Hussain? (AS)”

The Shia propagandists feel the heat when the Sunnis remind them that it was the Shia of Kufa who betrayed Hussain, and that it was this betrayal that led him to his death. To counter this, Answering-Ansar wrote an article defending Shi’ism by claiming that the Kuffans were not really Shia. The basic premise of Answering-Ansar’s article is that while the Kuffans were called “Shia”, they were not the Shia’t Ali but rather the Shia’t Umar, Shia’t Uthman, or the Shia’t Muawiyyah. Anything other than the Shia’t Ali.
However, this is a ridicolous interpretation of history, and no historian would claim that Kuffans were anyone other than the Shia’t Ali. But let us provide you with a historical source that the Shia considers authoratative. I kindly refer the reader to “The Origins and Early Development of Shi’a Islam” by SHM Jafri.

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THE HOLY QURAN

Islam appeared in the form of a book: the Quran. Muslims, consider the Quran (sometimes spelled "Koran") to be the Word of God as transmitted by the Angel Gabriel, in the Arabic language, through the Prophet Muhammad. The Muslim view, moreover, is that the Quran supersedes earlier revelations; it is regarded as their summation and completion. It is the final revelation, as Muhammad is regarded as the final prophet - 'the Seal of the Prophets."
In a very real sense the Quran is the mentor of millions of Muslims, Arab and non-Arab alike; it shapes their everyday life, anchors them to a unique system of law, and inspires them by its guiding principles. Written in noble language, this Holy Text has done more than move multitudes to tears and ecstasy; it has also, for almost fourteen hundred years, illuminated the lives of Muslims with its eloquent message of uncompromising monotheism, human dignity, righteous living, individual responsibility, and social justice. For countless millions, consequently, it has been the single most important force in guiding their religious, social, and cultural lives. Indeed, the Quran is the cornerstone on which the edifice of Islamic civilization has been built

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THE RIGHTLY GUIDED CALIPHS

With the death of Muhammad, the Muslim community was faced with the problem of succession. Who would be its leader? There were four persons obviously marked for leadership: Abu Bakr al-Siddiq, who had not only accompanied Muhammad to Medina ten years before, but had been appointed to take the place of the Prophet as leader of public prayer during Muhammad's last illness; 'Umar ibn al-Khattab, an able and trusted Companion of the Prophet; 'Uthman ibn 'Affan, a respected early convert; and 'Ali ibn Abi Talib, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law. To avoid contention among various groups, 'Umar suddenly grasped Abu Bakr's hand, the traditional sign of recognition of a new leader. Soon everyone concurred and before dusk Abu Bakr had been recognized as the khalifah of Muhammad. Khalifah- anglicized as caliph - is a word meaning "successor" but also suggesting what his historical role would be: to govern according to the Quran and the practice of the Prophet.
Abu Bakr's caliphate was short but important. An exemplary leader, he lived simply, assiduously fulfilled his religious obligations, and was accessible and sympathetic to his people. But he also stood firm when, in the wake of the Prophet's death, some tribes renounced Islam; in what was a major accomplishment, Abu Bakr swiftly disciplined them. Later, he consolidated the support of the tribes within the Arabian Peninsula and subsequently funnelled their energies against the powerful empires of the East: the Sassanians in Persia and the Byzantines in Syria, Palestine, and Egypt. In short, he demonstrated the viability of the Muslim state.

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THE RIGHTLY GUIDED CALIPHS

With the death of Muhammad, the Muslim community was faced with the problem of succession. Who would be its leader? There were four persons obviously marked for leadership: Abu Bakr al-Siddiq, who had not only accompanied Muhammad to Medina ten years before, but had been appointed to take the place of the Prophet as leader of public prayer during Muhammad's last illness; 'Umar ibn al-Khattab, an able and trusted Companion of the Prophet; 'Uthman ibn 'Affan, a respected early convert; and 'Ali ibn Abi Talib, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law. To avoid contention among various groups, 'Umar suddenly grasped Abu Bakr's hand, the traditional sign of recognition of a new leader. Soon everyone concurred and before dusk Abu Bakr had been recognized as the khalifah of Muhammad. Khalifah- anglicized as caliph - is a word meaning "successor" but also suggesting what his historical role would be: to govern according to the Quran and the practice of the Prophet.
Abu Bakr's caliphate was short but important. An exemplary leader, he lived simply, assiduously fulfilled his religious obligations, and was accessible and sympathetic to his people. But he also stood firm when, in the wake of the Prophet's death, some tribes renounced Islam; in what was a major accomplishment, Abu Bakr swiftly disciplined them. Later, he consolidated the support of the tribes within the Arabian Peninsula and subsequently funnelled their energies against the powerful empires of the East: the Sassanians in Persia and the Byzantines in Syria, Palestine, and Egypt. In short, he demonstrated the viability of the Muslim state.

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REVIVAL IN THE ARAB EAST

Elsewhere in the Arab world, meanwhile, the last vestiges of European political dominance were being eliminated. Egypt, for example, after ousting in 1952 a royal dynasty going back to the 1800s and installing Gamal Abdel Nasser as president, forced the British to relinquish control of the Suez Canal and withdraw from the country. Algeria, ten years later, won its independence from France after six years of bitter warfare. Even earlier, Iraq, Syria, and Lebanon had broken their ties with Britain and France.
This tumultuous period also saw an increase in the influence of the United States and the Soviet Union in the Middle East. Neither power had played a major role in the early phases of penetration, but this changed as they developed conflicting interests with regard to the Arab-Israeli dispute, the construction of the Aswan Dam in Egypt, the rise of a number of radical governments in the area, and the emergence of the Arab world as a pivotal supplier of oil to the world.
In the same period, the Arab countries themselves, voluntarily and pragmatically, continued to adopt Western techniques, forms, and to some extent concepts. Most Arab countries, for example, have embraced the concept of the sovereign nation-state and Western patterns of political administration: parliaments, political parties, and constitutions. Many, too, have adopted Western legal codes, have accepted international and regional organizations and international courts as means of dealing with other nations, and have organized and equipped their armed forces along Western lines. In recent years, most Arab countries have also adopted the modern industrial economy as a national goal and introduced modern techniques of agriculture and modern methods of transport and mass communications, and invested vast sums in education. Even in recreation and amusement, Western influences are strong

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ARABIC LITERATURE

The Quran, the primary document of the Islamic faith, is the first Arabic book. Its style, at once vigorous, allusive, and concise, deeply influenced later compositions in Arabic, as it continues to color the mode of expression of native speakers of Arabic, Christian as well as Muslim, both in writing and in conversation.
The Quran also largely determined the course of Arabic literature. The earliest Arabic prose came into being not from literary motives, but to serve religious and practical needs, above all the need to fully understand the Islamic revelation and the circumstances of the first Muslim community in the Hijaz. The sayings and actions of the Prophet and his Companions were collected and preserved, at first by memory and then by writing, to be finally collected and arranged by such men as al-Bukhari and Muslim in the ninth century. This material, the hadith, not only provided the basic texts from which Islamic law was elaborated, but also formed the raw material for historians of the early Muslim community. Since each hadith, or "saying," is a first-person narrative, usually by an eyewitness of the event described, they have an immediacy and freshness that has come down unimpaired through the centuries. The personalities of the narrators - Abu Bakr, Umar, Aishah, and a host of others are just as vivid as the events described, for the style of each hadith is very personal.
The hadith also determined the characteristic form of such works as Ibn Ishaq's Life of the Messenger of God, originally written in the middle of the eighth century. In this book, hadith dealing with the life of the Prophet are arranged in chronological order, and the comments of the author are kept to a minimum. Events are seen through the eyes of the people who witnessed them; three or four versions of the same event are often given, and in each case the "chain of transmission" of the hadith is given, so that the reader may judge its authenticity.

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THE MONGOLS AND THE MAMLUKS

In the thirteenth century still another threat to the Muslim world appeared in the land beyond the Oxus: the Mongols. Led by Genghis Khan, a confederation of nomadic tribes which had already conquered China now attacked the Muslims. In 1220 they took Samarkand and Bukhara. By mid-century they had taken Russia, Central Europe, northern Iran, and the Caucuses, and in 1258, under Hulagu Khan, they invaded Baghdad and put an end to the remnants of the once-glorious 'Abbasid Empire. The ancient systems of irrigation were destroyed and the devastation was so extensive that agricultural recovery, even in the twentieth century, is still incomplete. Because a minor scion of the dynasty took refuge with the Mamluks in Egypt, the 'Abbasid caliphate continued in name into the sixteenth century. In effect, however, it expired with the Mongols and the capture of Baghdad. From Iraq the Mongols pressed forward into Syria and then toward Egypt where, for the first time, they faced adversaries who refused to quail before their vaunted power. These were the Mamluks, soldier-slaves from the Turkish steppe area north of the Black and Caspian Seas with a later infusion of Circassians from the region of the Caucuses Mountains.
The Mamluks had been recruited by the Ayyubids and then, like the Turkish mercenaries of the 'Abbasid caliphs, had usurped power from their enfeebled masters. Unlike their predecessors, however, they were able to maintain their power, and they retained control of Egypt until the Ottoman conquest in 1517. Militarily formidable, they were also the first power to defeat the Mongols in open combat when, in 1260, the Mongols moved against Palestine and Egypt. Alerted by a chain of signal fires stretching from Iraq to Egypt, the Mamluks were able to marshal their forces in time to meet, and crush, the Mongols at 'Ayn Jalut near Nazareth in Palestine.

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THE GOLDEN AGE

The early 'Abbasids were also fortunate in the caliber of their caliphs, especially after Harun al-Rashid came to the caliphate in 786. His reign is now the most famous in the annals of the 'Abbasids - partly because of the fictional role given him in The Thousand and One Nights (portions of which probably date from his reign), but also because his reign and those of his immediate successors marked the high point of the 'Abbasid period. As the Arab chronicles put it, Harun al-Rashid ruled when the world was young, a felicitous description of what in later times has come to be called the Golden Age of Islam.
The Golden Age was a period of unrivaled intellectual activity in all fields: science, technology, and (as a result of intensive study of the Islamic faith) literature - particularly biography, history, and linguistics. Scholars, for example, in collecting and reexamining the hadith, or "traditions" - the sayings and actions of the Prophet - compiled immense biographical detail about the Prophet and other information, historic and linguistic, about the Prophet's era. This led to such memorable works as Sirat Rasul Allah, the "Life of the Messenger of God," by Ibn Ishaq, later revised by Ibn Hisham; one of the earliest Arabic historical works, it was a key source of information about the Prophet's life and also a model for other important works of history such as al-Tabari's Annals of the Apostles and the Kings and his massive commentary on the Quran.

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SCIENCE AND SCHOLARSHIP IN AL-ANDALUS

For Europe and Western civilization the contributions of Islamic Spain were of inestimable value. When the Muslims entered southern Spain - which they called al-Andalus - barbarians from the north had overrun much of Europe and the classical civilization of Greece and Rome had gone into eclipse. Islamic Spain then became a bridge by which the scientific, technological, and philosophical legacy of the 'Abbasid period, along with the achievements of al-Andalus itself, passed into Europe.
In the first century of Islamic rule in Spain the culture was largely derived from that of the flourishing civilization being developed by the 'Abbasids in Baghdad. But then, during the reign of 'Abd al-Rahman III (912-961), Islamic Spain began to make its own contributions.
'Abd al-Rahman III was passionately interested in both the religious and the secular sciences. He was also determined to show the world that his court at Cordoba equaled in greatness that of the caliphs at Baghdad. Sparing neither time nor expense, he imported books from Baghdad and actively recruited scholars by offering hand some inducements. Soon, as a result, scholars, poets, philosophers, historians, and musicians began to migrate to al-Andalus. Soon, too, an infrastructure of libraries, hospitals, research institutions, and centers of Islamic studies grew up, establishing the intellectual tradition and educational system which made Spain outstanding for the next four hundred years.

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ARABIC WRITING

The Arabs gave to a large part of the world not only a religion - Islam - but also a language and an alphabet. Where the Muslim religion went, the Arabic language and Arabic writing also went. Arabic became and has remained the national language - the mother tongue - of North Africa and all the Arab countries of the Middle East.
Even where Arabic did not become the national language, it became the language of religion wherever Islam became established, since the Quran is written in Arabic, the Profession of Faith is to be spoken in Arabic, and five times daily the practicing Muslim must say his prayers in Arabic. Today, therefore, one can hear Arabic spoken - at least for religious purposes - from Mauritania on the Atlantic, across Africa and most of Asia, and as far east as Indonesia and the Philippines. Even in China (which has a Muslim population of some forty million) and the Central Asian republics of the CIS (ex-USSR), Arabic can be heard in the shahadah, in prayer, and in the chanting of the Quran.
Of those people who embraced Islam but did not adopt Arabic as their everyday language, many millions have taken the Arabic alphabet for their own, so that today one sees the Arabic script used to write languages that have no basic etymological connection with Arabic. The languages of Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan are all written in the Arabic alphabet, as was the language of Turkey until some fifty years ago. It is also used in Kashmir and in some places in the Malay Peninsula and the East Indies, and in Africa it is used in Somalia and down the east coast as far south as Tanzania.

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THE FAITH OF ISLAM

Islam, in Arabic, means "submission" - submission to the will of God. Faithful Muslims, therefore, submit unreservedly to God's will and obey His precepts as set forth in the Quran and transmitted to mankind by Muhammad, His Messenger.
Muslims believe that theirs is the only true faith. Islam, they say, was revealed through a long line of prophets inspired by God. Among them are Ibrahim (Abraham), patriarch of the Arabs through his first son Isma'il (Ishmael); Musa (Moses), who received the Torah (Tawrah); Dawud (David), who spoke through the Psalms (Zabur); and 'Isa (Jesus), who brought the Gospels (Injil). But the full and final revelation came through Muhammad, the last of all prophets, and was embodied in the Quran, which completes and supersedes all previous revelations.

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THE 'ABBASIDS

In the Middle East, during these centuries, the 'Abbasids, after their victory over the Umayyads, had transformed the Umayyads' Arab empire into a multinational Muslim empire. They moved the capital of the empire from Syria to Iraq, where they built a new capital, Baghdad, from which, during the next five centuries, they would influence many of the main events of Islamic history.
In the early period of 'Abbasid rule, al-Mansur, the second caliph of the dynasty, continued the reorganization of the administration of the empire along the lines that had been laid down by his Umayyad predecessor, 'Abd al-Malik. Much of the 'Abbasid administration, for example, was left in the hands of well-educated Persian civil servants, many of whom came from families that had traditionally served the Sassanid kings. The important office of wazir or vizier, chief counselor, may well have developed from Sassanid models. The vizier was much more than an advisor; indeed, when the caliph was weak, a capable vizier became the most powerful man in the empire.

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ISLAM IN SPAIN

By the time 'Abd al-Rahman reached Spain, the Arabs from North Africa were already entrenched on the Iberian Peninsula and had begun to write one of the most glorious chapters in Islamic history.
After their forays into France were blunted by Charles Martel, the Muslims in Spain had begun to focus their whole attention on what they called al-Andalus, southern Spain (Andalusia), and to build there a civilization far superior to anything Spain had ever known. Reigning with wisdom and justice, they treated Christians and Jews with tolerance, with the result that many embraced Islam. They also improved trade and agriculture, patronized the arts, made valuable contributions to science, and established Cordoba as the most sophisticated city in Europe.
By the tenth century, Cordoba could boast of a population of some 500,000, compared to about 38,000 in Paris. According to the chronicles of the day, the city had 700 mosques, some 60,000 palaces, and 70 libraries - one reportedly housing 500,000 manuscripts and employing a staff of researchers, illuminators, and book binders. Cordoba also had some 900 public baths, Europe's first street lights and, five miles outside the city, the caliphal residence, Madinat al-Zahra. A complex of marble, stucco, ivory, and onyx, Madinat al-Zahra took forty years to build, cost close to one-third of Cordoba's revenue, and was, until destroyed in the eleventh century, one of the wonders of the age. Its restoration, begun in the early years of this century, is still under way.

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Islam and Islamic History in Arabia

THE COMING OF THE WEST:
The Western world had for centuries been gradually penetrating most of the areas that had once been part of the Muslim empire, and in the latter part of the nineteenth century, in the vacuum left by the long decay and decline of the Ottoman Empire, European powers came to dominate the Middle East.
Among the first Europeans to gain a foothold in the Middle East were the Venetians who, as early as the thirteenth century, had established trading posts in what are now Lebanon, Syria, and Egypt, and who controlled much of the shipping between Arab and European ports. Then, in 1497, five years after Ferdinand and Isabella ended Islamic rule in Spain, Vasco da Gama led a fleet of four Portuguese ships around Africa and in 1498 found a new sea route to India from Europe. Dutch, British, and French frigates and merchantmen followed and began establishing trading outposts along the shores of the Indian Ocean, eventually undercutting both Venetian shipping and the Mediterranean trade on which the Middle East had thrived for millennia.
The process of European penetration was gradual and complex; but there were, nevertheless, clearly identifiable turning points. In the sixteenth century, for example, the Ottoman Empire voluntarily granted a series of concessions called the "Capitulations" to European powers - concessions which gave the Europeans decided advantages in foreign trade in the empire. Another turning point was the invasion of Egypt in 1798 by Napoleon Bonaparte. Hoping to cut Britain's lines to India and cripple its maritime and economic power, Napoleon crushed the Mamluks (who governed Egypt under Ottoman suzerainty) and briefly occupied the country. By defeating Egypt, then still part of the Ottoman Empire, Napoleon exposed the inner weaknesses, both military and administrative, of the sultans, shattered the myth of Ottoman power, and inaugurated more than 150 years of direct political intervention by the West.
Europe's worldwide nineteenth-century search for raw materials, markets, military bases, and colonies eventually touched most of what had been the Arab empire. In 1820 Great Britain imposed a pact on Arab tribes on the coast of the Arabian Gulf; in the 1830s France occupied Algeria; in 1839 Britain occupied Aden, at the strategic entrance to the Red Sea; and in 1869 Ferdinand de Lesseps, with the backing of the French emperor, completed what would become, and still is, one of the key shipping arteries of the world, the Suez Canal.

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A Brief History of Islam

Mohammad was born in Arabia in the city of Mecca in 570 CE. He came from a prominent and highly respected family. When he was 25 he married a wealthy widow named Khadija. Their marriage was a happy one although only one of their children, Fatima, lived to maturity. Mohammad spent most of his time in solitary meditation. He began to have many disturbing visions. Once he believed he saw the angel Gabriel. Mohammad said that the angel gave him the following command:
“Recite, in the name of the Lord who has created,Created man from clots of blood,Recite, seeing that the Lord is the most generous, Who has taught by the pen, Taught man what he did not know.”
The Arabic word for “recite” is Qur’an (often called Koran), meaning the reciting or the reading. Thus, the Qur’an, the sacred book of the Muslims, is the “reciting” of “revelations” given to Mohammad. Over a period of 22 years, Mohammad reported many other revelations. Encouraged by his wife, he began to preach in the streets and market places of Mecca. Mohammad never claimed to be divine, but insisted that Allah had called him to be a prophet.
Mohammad hated the idolatry and the immorality of the Arabs who lived in Mecca or came there to trade their goods. He was met with bitter opposition, but for many years his influential uncle, Abu Talib, was able to protect him.
When both Khadija and Abu Talib died in 620 CE, plots were hatched to kill Mohammad and his followers. Finally, on July 16, 622, Mohammad was forced to flee to Medina, a friendlier city to the north. This flight, called the hegira, marks the beginning of Islam. The Muslim calendar starts with this date, and the years are counted from “A.H.” meaning “the year of the hegira.” Medina, which is the city’s current name, was first named Madinat an Nabi (City of the Prophet), in honor of Mohammad. Mohammad became the religious and political leader of the city.

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Islam

Muhammad's Allah religion was a counterfeit reaction to Christianity. As Christianity was sweeping across distant lands and was becoming dominate, Satan took elements from the Torah and from Christianity, and he corrupted them. As a younger generation of Muslims, most likely being born into Islam and having little choice, earn college degrees, they see Islam as a violent and backward seventh-century religion. Many of their ancestors were forced into Islam at the point of a sword. Islam is both a culture and a religion, as it tries to deify seventh-century Arabia. Freedoms that U.S. citizens take for granted (speech, religion, press, etc.), are not tolerated by ruling Islamic governance.
Islam tolerates no other religions. Muslims are to regard only Islam as acceptable Reflecting Muhammad's murderous life, Islam is a violent religion. Muslims are to kill all who reject Muhammad and the Qur'an Muslims are to fight until all other religions are destroyed Islam teaches that all who reject the Qur'an will be regulated to hell As people become better educated, and as they long for a God of love, they become ashamed of the invented religion of a lust driven Arab highwayman who attacked camel caravans, murdered innocent merchants and thieved their property after getting revelations from Allah. Of the ninety-nine names Islam has for Allah, not even one of them is "love." The true nature of Islam is often reflected in the loveless eyes of Muslims.
Muhammad's Allah religion was a counterfeit reaction to Christianity. As Christianity was sweeping across distant lands and was becoming dominate, Satan took elements from the Torah and from Christianity, and he corrupted them. As a younger generation of Muslims, most likely being born into Islam and having little choice, earn college degrees, they see Islam as a violent and backward seventh-century religion. Many of their ancestors were forced into Islam at the point of a sword. Islam is both a culture and a religion, as it tries to deify seventh-century Arabia. Freedoms that U.S. citizens take for granted (speech, religion, press, etc.), are not tolerated by ruling Islamic governance.
Islam tolerates no other religions. Muslims are to regard only Islam as acceptable Reflecting Muhammad's murderous life, Islam is a violent religion. Muslims are to kill all who reject Muhammad and the Qur'an Muslims are to fight until all other religions are destroyed Islam teaches that all who reject the Qur'an will be regulated to hell As people become better educated, and as they long for a God of love, they become ashamed of the invented religion of a lust driven Arab highwayman who attacked camel caravans, murdered innocent merchants and thieved their property after getting revelations from Allah. Of the ninety-nine names Islam has for Allah, not even one of them is "love." The true nature of Islam is often reflected in the loveless eyes of Muslims.

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Background of Islam

Through their contacts with Jews and Christians, the Meccans acquired a certain awareness of monotheism and developed vague notions of a Supreme Being. They believed, however, that they could gain access to the Supreme Being only through intercessors--gods and goddesses in the form of idols. So they installed 360 such idols in the Ka'bah, which remained there until the Prophet Muhammad destroyed them and reconsecrated the Ka'bah, which subsequently became the holiest shrine of the Islamic religion. (Diller, Daniel C.; The Middle East, Congressional Quartely Inc: Washington, D.C.Judaism and Christianity were the only religions, before Islam, which believed in the One God. Islam has borrowed heavily from both Judaism and Christianity. Muhammed, the founder, was born in 570 AD in Mecca in Arabia. Mecca was the site of a sacred shrine, "the Ka'aba" which was the center of idol worship. They had 360 gods and the Moon-god was the chief deity. The Ka'aba contained a black stone (probably a meteorite) which is still regarded as a holy object for the Moslems. Visions of Muhammed
At the age of 25, he married his 40-year-old, wealthy, widowed employer (Khadijah). His newfound wealth allowed him the leisure to purse his interest in religion. He spent the month of Ramadan each year in a cave in meditation. He became disgusted with idolatry and desired to rid Arabia of idol worship. He claimed that he started receiving visions at age 40 from the angel Gabriel, which continued for the rest of his life. In one of these visions, he claimed, he went to heaven and was told that he was the greatest man on earth.

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Some Basic Facts About Islam

Islam is the fastest growing religion in the U.S. (U.S. NEWS AND WORLD REPORT, Oct. 8, 1990). It is growing at a rate of 400% per year in the USA.
Half of all the Muslims in the U.S. are African Americans.
Islam has mosques in every major city in Europe and is the second largest religion in the world with 1.1 billion followers.
Islam has been a dominant force in Asia and Africa for hundreds of years. It is spreading mostly through marriage and breeding in these countries.
Countries with a high population of Muslims (Indonesia, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, etc.) have a reputation for persecuting Christians.
Christian nations in the West tolerate Islam, but Islamic countries are unwilling to tolerate Christianity.
Islam is a theocracy, which means that Moslem laws govern both religion and civil state: both personal and public laws
"There is no way that Islam can reform itself and remain Islam, no way it can ever be made compatible with pluralism, free speech, critical thought and democracy. Anyone convinced they already possess the truth have no need for such things. Although Muslims resident in non-Muslim countries clamour for every kind of indulgence for their own beliefs and customs, there can be no doubt that given any kind of power they would impose their own beliefs and eliminate all difference."

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The Arab/Muslim Confusion

The assessment and appreciation of Islam and its role in the emergence of the modern West by George Sarton is not unique. This issue is important for Muslims as well as non-Muslims. For Muslims it is important because they need to understand the dynamics of rise and fall of nations to which Muslims are and were not immune. The primary factors behind the decline of the Muslim world were internal, even though there were external, competitive forces at work in causing the shift of the center of civilization. For non-Muslims it is important to recognize and understand that the modern west did not emerge in a vacuum. Even though there were military conflicts between the world of Islam and the west, there were deeper factors that were positively received and utilized by the west not only to reconnect itself to the Greco-Roman root, but also to imbibe fundamentally important and pivotal contributions of Muslims.
Anyone who suggests that "Islam (through its practice in most of history), did act as antithesis of modernity" is simply not informed about this issue. If someone would like to say that those among Muslims who represent the dogmatic or traditional side act as antithesis of modernity, or if someone would say (instead of, their achievements can be characterized as DESPITE Islam) that the achievements of the great Muslim scientists can be characterized as DESPITE the traditional/dogmatic segments among Muslims, then it would altogether different and perfectly valid. But that was not the way it has been stated, and now there is a desperate effort to wiggle out of the earlier assertion, which can be amended by simply acknowledging that the earlier statement was not what the author meant and should state what exactly meant. When some general statement is made referring to Islam, without identifying the dogmatic/traditional and rationalist/scientific segment WITHIN Islam, then it would be taken and understood as general.

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The History of Islam in Africa

The History of Islam in Africa is the first book to approach the role of Islam in Africa on a continent-wide basis. Until now more emphasis has been put on Islam in West Africa than any other region. The 24 contributors to the book, who all have impeccable credentials, have focused on the historical, cultural, and environmental factors which influenced diverse, local forms of Islam. This diversity has produced widely varied religious meanings, beliefs, and practices that have molded African communities which at the same time adapted Islam to its new settings.
In the fourteen centuries since the introduction of Islam, Muslims have played important roles in Africa's development. Muslims were important in the process of state-building, in creating commercial networks between parts of the continent, in introducing literacy (which saw Muslim become scribes in charge of state records), as well as in exchanges of inter-state diplomacy within Africa and beyond.
The book is divided into four sections: Gateways to Africa (Egypt and the Maghrib from the north and the Indian Ocean from the east), West Africa and the Sudan, Eastern and Southern Africa, and General Themes. The latter section includes Islamic law, Muslim women in African history, Islamic education, Sufi brotherhoods, and Islamic art, literature and music.

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Women Scholars of Hadith

Islam, as a religion which (unlike Christianity) refused to attribute gender to the Godhead,1 and never appointed a male priestly elite to serve as an intermediary between creature and Creator, started life with the assurance that while men and women are equipped by nature for complementary rather than identical roles, no spiritual superiority inheres in the masculine principle.2 As a result, the Muslim community was happy to entrust matters of equal worth in God's sight. Only this can explain why, uniquely among the classical Western religions, Islam produced a large number of outstanding female scholars, on whose testimony and sound judgment much of the edifice of Islam depends.
Since Islam's earliest days, women had been taking a prominent part in the preservation and cultivation of hadith, and this function continued down the centuries. At every period in Muslim history, there lived numerous eminent women-traditionists, treated by their brethren with reverence and respect. Biographical notices on very large numbers of them are to be found in the biographical dictionaries.
During the lifetime of the Prophet, many women had been not only the instance for the evolution of many traditions, but had also been their transmitters to their sisters and brethren in faith.3 After the Prophet's death, many women Companions, particularly his wives, were looked upon as vital custodians of knowledge, and were approached for instruction by the other Companions, to whom they readily dispensed the rich store which they had gathered in the Prophet's company. The names of Hafsa, Umm Habiba, Maymuna, Umm Salama, and A'isha, are familiar to every student of hadith as being among its earliest and most distinguished transmitters.4 In particular, A'isha is one of the most important figures in the whole history of hadith literature - not only as one of the earliest reporters of the largest number of hadith, but also as one of their most careful interpreters.

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The Expansion of Islam

Mohammad Ali writes in his article, "The condition of Arabs before the advent of the Holy Prophet and the Transformation He Wrought in Them," says that "From such debasing idolatry, the holy Prophet uplift the whole of Arabia in a brief span of twenty years . . . is not this the mightiest miracle that the world has ever witnessed ? . . . It was this fallen humanity whom the Holy prophet raised to the highest level of moral rectitude."

Mohammad Ali writes in his article, "The condition of Arabs before the advent of the Holy Prophet and the Transformation He Wrought in Them," says that "From such debasing idolatry, the holy Prophet uplift the whole of Arabia in a brief span of twenty years . . . is not this the mightiest miracle that the world has ever witnessed ? . . . It was this fallen humanity whom the Holy prophet raised to the highest level of moral rectitude."

Mahatma Gandhi, in his unique style, says "Some one has said that Europeans in South Africa dread the advent Islam - Islam that civilized Spain, Islam that took the torch light to Morocco and preached to the world the Gospel of brotherhood. The Europeans of South Africa dread the Advent of Islam. They may claim equality with the white races. They may well dread it, if brotherhood is a sin. If it is equality of colored races then their dread is well founded."

Sarojini Naidu explains his point in Ideals of Islam by saying that "It was the first religion that preached and practiced democracy; for, in the mosque, when the call for prayer is sounded and worshippers are gathered together, the democracy of Islam is embodied five times a day when the peasant and king kneel side by side and proclaim: 'God Alone is Great'... I have been struck over and over again by this indivisible unity of Islam that makes man instinctively a brother."
Professor Hurgronje writes "the fact is that no nation of the world can show a parallel to what Islam has done towards the realization of the idea of the League of Nations ".

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History of Islam

The world Islam means "submission to God". The Holy Quran describes Islam as an Arabic word Deen (way of life). The followers of Islam are called Muslims. The literal meaning of Muslim is "one who surrenders" or "submits" to the will of God. In order to understand Islam, the basic portrayal of belief in Quran must be considered. According to Quran, those who submit to one God are Muslims. Aisha Y. Musa writes in his article, Jews in the Quran: An Introduction that, "Islam is the religion of all the prophets from Adam to Noah to Abraham to Moses, Jesus and Mohammad. (10:71-72, 84; 2:128-133; 5:110-112)." Quran also declares that all the prophets who came before Mohammad and their followers were all Muslims.

The origin of Islam dates back to the creation of the world. All the prophets who came to this world preached the same message of believing in one God and to accept them as His messenger. The prophets were also blessed with a manifestation of divine will or truth. Likewise, Prophet Mohammad was also a messenger of God. He revealed the truth and the way of life through the Holy Quran.

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The Expansion of Islam

Mohammad Ali writes in his article, "The condition of Arabs before the advent of the Holy Prophet and the Transformation He Wrought in Them," says that "From such debasing idolatry, the holy Prophet uplift the whole of Arabia in a brief span of twenty years . . . is not this the mightiest miracle that the world has ever witnessed ? . . . It was this fallen humanity whom the Holy prophet raised to the highest level of moral rectitude."

Mahatma Gandhi, in his unique style, says "Some one has said that Europeans in South Africa dread the advent Islam - Islam that civilized Spain, Islam that took the torch light to Morocco and preached to the world the Gospel of brotherhood. The Europeans of South Africa dread the Advent of Islam. They may claim equality with the white races. They may well dread it, if brotherhood is a sin. If it is equality of colored races then their dread is well founded."

Sarojini Naidu explains his point in Ideals of Islam by saying that "It was the first religion that preached and practiced democracy; for, in the mosque, when the call for prayer is sounded and worshippers are gathered together, the democracy of Islam is embodied five times a day when the peasant and king kneel side by side and proclaim: 'God Alone is Great'... I have been struck over and over again by this indivisible unity of Islam that makes man instinctively a brother." Professor Hurgronje writes "the fact is that no nation of the world can show a parallel to what Islam has done towards the realization of the idea of the League of Nations ".

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History of Islam

The world Islam means "submission to God". The Holy Quran describes Islam as an Arabic word Deen (way of life). The followers of Islam are called Muslims. The literal meaning of Muslim is "one who surrenders" or "submits" to the will of God. In order to understand Islam, the basic portrayal of belief in Quran must be considered. According to Quran, those who submit to one God are Muslims. Aisha Y. Musa writes in his article, Jews in the Quran: An Introduction that, "Islam is the religion of all the prophets from Adam to Noah to Abraham to Moses, Jesus and Mohammad. (10:71-72, 84; 2:128-133; 5:110-112)." Quran also declares that all the prophets who came before Mohammad and their followers were all Muslims.

The origin of Islam dates back to the creation of the world. All the prophets who came to this world preached the same message of believing in one God and to accept them as His messenger. The prophets were also blessed with a manifestation of divine will or truth. Likewise, Prophet Mohammad was also a messenger of God. He revealed the truth and the way of life through the Holy Quran.

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Female Companions of the Prophet Muhammad

Despite the stereotypes, Muslim women have always played a vital role in the Muslim community, and not only in traditional roles. Early Muslim women served the community through scholarship, teaching, nursing, and other important activities. Far from being downtrodden slaves to the men in their lives, these women served Allah and their community with bravery and wisdom. Muslim women look to them as role models

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Prophet Mohammed (pbuh) and Trust in Allah (SWT)

When Abu Sufyan ibn Harb, the chief of the polytheists of Makkah, saw approximately ten thousand strong army of Islam (during the conquest of Makkah), he was filled with awe and astonishment. As he walked beside the battalions of Prophet Mohammed (pbuh), he murmured: "I wish I knew why Muhammad became victorious over me. How did he manage to gather for himself such a powerful army despite being alone and without support in Makkah?"
Prophet Mohammed (pbuh) overheard him. "We became victorious over you by Allah's (SWT) assistance!" he said, placing his hand upon Abu Sufyan ibn Harb's shoulder.
In the battle of Hunain, when the enemy suddenly and unsuspectingly attacked the forces of Islam, chaos reigned supreme within the Muslim ranks. When Prophet Mohammed (pbuh) watched this state of the Muslim army, he sought Allah's (SWT) help by placing his trust in Him, and supplicated: 'O' Lord! All praise and thanks only belong to You. I place my complaint (regarding the state of affairs) before You and it is only You from whom help and assistance ought to be sought.'At that moment, angel Gabriel (Jabra'il) descended from the heavens and said to him: "O' Prophet of Allah (SWT)! You have recited a supplication which Prophet Musa / Moses (phbuh) had recited when the sea had split for him and he was granted deliverance from the evils of Firawn (Pharaoh)."

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Story of Heraclius, the Emperor of Byzantine [Prophet Mohammad (saw) spreading Islam]

The tides of events, sometimes, foretell about the future developments in history. These prophecies get special importance if they are from the source of revelation. In such cases, we ought to receive such implications, and after pondering over them, we have to acknowledge them, and prepare for their occurrence. The appointment (al-Mab'ath) of Prophet Mohammad (saw) to prophetic mission was among the subjects which were foretold from long before.
Noble Qur'an explicitly states that 'the People of the Book read about him and his traits, and they are aware that their prophets have elucidated the appearance of such leader.'
"Those who follow the Apostle-Prophet, the Ummi, whom they find written down with them in the Tawrat and the Injeel, (who) enjoins them good and forbids them evil, and makes lawful to them the good things and makes unlawful to them impure things, and removes from them their burden and the shackles which were upon them..." ( Noble Qur'an, 7:157)
"And when there came to them a Book from Allah verifying that which they have, and aforetime they used to pray for victory against those who disbelieve, but when there came to them (Prophet) that which they did not recognize, they disbelieved in him..." ( Noble Qur'an, 2:89)
Therefore, the Jewish scholars, the Christian priests, and Arab geomancers knew about the emergence of Prophet Mohammad (saw) from the clues in the Testaments.
Based on these prophecies, when Prophet Mohammad (saw), in the 7th AH, wrote invitation letters to the powerful governors of the world and among them is Heraclius, the emperor of Byzantine of Eastern Roman Empire.
The Byzantine Empire is also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, for it was in fact a continuation of the Roman Empire into its eastern part. Heraclius was the ruler between 610 - 641CE.
Abu Sufyan ibn Harb a leader of the tribe of Quraish and the arch enemy of Prophet Mohammad (saw), by coincidence, he is in Syria (Shaam) on a business trip, when the Prophet Mohammad's (saw) letter of invitation reached Heraclius, the emperor of Byzantine of Eastern Roman Empire. Heraclius, at the time was in his court at Constantinople - modern day Istanbul or Jerusalem celebrating his victory over the Persians.
Note: Abu Sufyan ibn Harb become so called Muslim only after the conquest of Makkah in 630 CE (8 AH) and this incident is from around 628CE.
Heraclius read the letter through an interpreter and then asked the people in his court, to find out if there was someone in the city, who knew Prophet Mohammad (saw). Heraclius agent reached Abu Sufyan ibn Harb with his companions was brought into the court.
Heraclius: "What kind of family does Muhammad belongs to?" asked Abu Sufyan ibn Harb: "Noble family", replied
Heraclius: "Has there been a king in his family?" askedAbu Sufyan ibn Harb: "No," replied
Heraclius: "Are the people who have accepted his religion poor or rich?" questioned againAbu Sufyan ibn Harb: "The people of higher class are against him, and people of middle class and lower class support him and accept his religion", replied
Heraclius was now becoming more and more interested and he went on asking questions.
Heraclius: "Are his followers on the increase or decrease?"Abu Sufyan ibn Harb: "Increasing", replied shortly
Heraclius: "Have you known him to tell lies"? askedAbu Sufyan ibn Harb: "No, he is an honest person", admitted
Heraclius: "Does he ever go against his convents?" once again askedAbu Sufyan ibn Harb: "Not so far. But we have to see whether he carries out the new agreement made between us and him", answered lengthily for a change
Heraclius: "Have you ever fought him in wars?" questionedAbu Sufyan ibn Harb: "Yes", answered
Heraclius: "What has been the result?" asked, getting more and more interestedAbu Sufyan ibn Harb: "Sometimes we have won, sometimes he", replied
Heraclius: "What does he teach?" askedAbu Sufyan ibn Harb: "Worship One God, join no partners with Him, carry out your prayers, be chaste, speak the truth and keep union with your relatives", answered
Even surprised at his own answer as it sounded like he was preaching Islam, Heraclius stood up and said, "If all you said is true, then I am sure that this Prophet's Kingdom will reach here where I am standing. I was certain that a Prophet was coming, but I didn't know that he would be born in Arabia. If I were to go there, I would embrace Islam and wash the Prophet's feet with my own hands."
This was the way in which Prophet Mohammad (saw) spread Islam. Prophet Mohammad (saw) impressed them by his truthfulness, honesty, noble character and dedication in the service of Allah (SWT). Prophet Mohammad (saw) did not compel people to accept Islam under threat of waging wars, nor did he compel people to accept Islam by the force of the sword. Prophet Mohammad (saw) fought only in defense, and only when the enemies waged war on him.

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Story of Khosrow Parviz, the King of Iran (Persia) [Miracle of Prophet Mohammad's (saw) prayer]

Of the kings to whom Prophet Mohammad (saw) had sent letters inviting them to Islam, one was Khosrow Parviz, the King of Iran (Persia). The letter was sent to him through Abdullah ibn Hudhafah.
In the Name of Allah, the Merciful, the Compassionate.
From Muhammad, Allah's Messenger, to Khosrow, the King of Persia. Greetings to the followers of the right path, to those obedient to Allah and His Prophet, to those who bear witness to Allah's Oneness, who worship the One God, and who bear witness to the prophecy of Allah's servant, Muhammad.
Truly I call upon you to obey Allah's command and convert to Islam. I am Allah's Messenger to all the people so that living hearts will be awakened and illuminated and so that infidels will have no excuses. Submit to Islam so you will be safe and immune, and if you disobey me and turn down my invitation, you will be blamed for the sins of the magi.
On receiving the letter, Khosrow Parviz ordered it to be translated. When it was translated, he noticed that the Prophet Mohammad (saw) had written his own name before king's and this proved too hard for him to digest. He tore the letter in fury, totally ignored Abdullah ibn Hudhafah and refrained from responding to the letter.
When Prophet Mohammad (saw) was informed of this act, he prayed: "O' Lord! You too tear apart his kingdom."
Khosrow Parviz wrote to Badhan, who was governor of Yemen, a Persian province: "It has reached my ears that a person has claimed Prophethood in Hijaz. Arrange to send two brave and courageous persons to him so that they may bring him to me as a captive."
Immediately Badhan sent Abadhaweih, one of his assistants, and a Persian officer called Kharkharah, with a warrant that required Prophet Mohammad (saw) to surrender himself to them and go with them to Khosrow Parviz. Badhan, however, asked his assistant to find out the truth about Prophet Mohammad (saw).
Abadhaweih and his companion traveled from Yemen until they arrived in Taif, which is about 90 km from Makkah. Its people told them that Prophet Mohammad (saw) was now in Madinah. The Taif people - who were not Muslims at the time and the Quraish were very pleased when they learned that the Persian emperor had ordered the arrest of Muhammad. They felt that Prophet Mohammad (saw) was now facing his most difficult test.
Clean-shaven but with large moustaches, the two officers from Yemen came to Prophet Mohammad (saw) in Madinah. Abadhaweih said to him: "Khosrow Parviz, the king of kings, has written to Badhan, the governor of Yemen, commanding him to send us to take you to him. If you comply, Badhan will write to the king of kings interceding on your behalf. This will spare you a great deal of trouble. If you reject his order, you know how powerful he is. He is sure to destroy you and your people as well as your country."
Prophet Mohammad (saw) did not like their appearance. He (saw) asked them who ordered them to shave their beards and their reply was: "Our Lord", meaning Khosrow Parviz. Prophet Mohammad (saw) said: "But my Lord has commanded me to wear a beard and to trim my moustache." He also asked them to wait till the following day when he was to meet them again. In the meantime, Prophet Mohammad (saw) received information through the angel Gabriel (Jabra'il) that Allah (SWT) had caused Khosrow Parviz to be killed by Shirweih, his own son, giving him the exact time of night and the date when Khosrow Parviz was killed in Persia.
Prophet Mohammad (saw) called in the Persian messengers and told them of the killing of their King. They said to him: "Do you realize what you are saying? Your arrest has been ordered for something much more trivial than this. Do you still wish us to write this down and inform governor Badhan of what you have just said?"
Prophet Mohammad (saw) replied: "Yes. Tell him also on my behalf that my religion and my kingdom will replace that of Khosrow Parviz and will sweep all before it. Tell him also that if he accepts Islam, I will give him what he has now under his authority and will make him a ruler in the area he now governs." Prophet Mohammad (saw) also gave Kharkharah a sack of gold and silver that was sent to him as a present by another king.
The two envoys left and went back to Yemen where they told Badhan of what Prophet Mohammad (saw) had said. He told them: "This is not the sort of thing a king would say. To my mind, the man is a prophet, as he claims. If he is, what he has just told you will come to pass. If it is true that Khosrow Parviz has been killed, the man is a prophet and a messenger. If not, we will make up our mind about what to do with him."
Presently Badhan received a message from Shirweih informing him that he had killed his father, Khosrow Parviz after he had adopted despotic measures against the Persian nobility. He also commanded him to ask his commanders to swear allegiance to him as the new King. He further asked him not to disturb Prophet Mohammad (saw) until he had received further instructions.
Badhan then realized that Muhammad was truly God's Messenger. He called Abadhaweih in and questioned him further about Prophet Mohammad (saw). The latter told him that Prophet Mohammad (saw) did not keep any guard to protect him from his people or from anyone else. "Nevertheless, I have never spoken to a man who has inspired me with awe as much as he does." Badhan was then certain that Muhammad was truly the Messenger of God and he communicated his conviction to his advisers and counselors. He declared that he wished to become a Muslim and they all joined him in accepting the message of the Prophet Mohammad (saw).This was the beginning of the spread of Islam in Yemen. The majority of its population, Christians and Magians alike, started to accept Islam. They conveyed this to Prophet Mohammad (saw) and he sent them some of his companions to teach them the principles of Islam and instruct them in how to lead an Islamic life.

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Prophet Mohammad (saw): Universal Mission of inviting people to Islam

Arabia, during the time of Prophet Mohammad (saw), was a country without any central authority. It was a country far from the civilized nations of those days. At the time Prophet Mohammad (saw) was spreading Islam; asking people to turn away from worshipping idols to worshipping Allah (SWT), the Almighty, the All-Knower, and the Master.
In 6/7 AH (628CE), Prophet Mohammad (saw) dispatched several representatives to rulers and kings of different parts of the world, each with a letter in which he invited them to become Muslims and submit to Allah's (SWT) faith. All these letters had the same purport, that is, the invitation to monotheism and Islamic fraternity. Many of the letters were met with a favorable response whilst others were rejected.
In many cases, the messengers of Prophet Mohammad (saw) were badly treated and abused. But Prophet Mohammad (saw) was not worried by these setbacks. He was inviting people to the right path and a few setbacks could not deter him from propagating Islam.
Since Prophet Mohammad's (saw) mission was divine, in obedience to Allah's (SWT) command, consistent with human nature and meant to lead people to Allah's (SWT) path, it highly impressed such just, truth seeking people as al-Najashi (Negus), good Christian King of Abyssinia ( Ethiopia ), Muquqs, and others, so they submitted to Islam.Research made on the collection of Prophet Mohammad's (saw) letters indicates that he sent 62 letters to kings, chiefs of tribes and clans, and heads of convents.

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